The Extent to Which People Are Devoted to Their Organizations and Families Is
Globe (Global Leadership and Organizational Beliefs Effectiveness) is a research program focusing on civilisation and leadership in 61 nations. National cultures are examined in terms of nine dimensions: functioning orientation, hereafter orientation, assertiveness, power distance, humane orientation, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, dubiousness avoidance, and gender egalitarianism. In a survey of thousands of centre managers in food processing, finance, and telecommunication industries in these countries, World compares their cultures and attributes of effective leadership. Six global leadership attributes are identified and discussed.
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Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories
beyond the world: an introduction to project Earth
Robert House
a,*
, Mansour Javidan
b
, Paul Hanges
c
, Peter Dorfman
d
a
Wharton School of Management, Academy of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
b
University of Calgary, Calgary, Alta., Canada
c
University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United states
d
New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003, U.s.a.
Abstract
Globe (Global Leadership and Organizational Beliefs Effectiveness) is a research program focusing on civilization and
leadership in 61 nations. National cultures are examined in terms of nine dimensions: functioning orientation, future
orientation, assertiveness, power distance, humane orientation, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, uncertainty
avoidance, and gender egalitarianism. In a survey of thousands of middle managers in food processing, ®nance, and
telecommunications industries in these countries, GLOBE compares their cultures and attributes of effective leadership. Six
global leadership attributes are identi®ed and discussed. # 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Inc.
Throughout mankind's history, geography, ethnicity, and
political boundaries take helped create distinctions and
differences amid different peoples. Over time, societies
have evolved into groups of people with distinguishable
characteristics that fix them apart from other man com-
munities. It is but in the latter part of the 20th century
that advances in technology and improvements in telecom-
munication and transportation take enabled societies to
quickly and hands learn about and from others. Marco Polo,
the swell Italian world traveler would have marveled at the
speed and ease with which his adventures can be replicated
today.
One of the consequences of stronger connections among
different cultures is increasing involvement in two central
questions: ®rst, in what manner are human communities dif-
ferent or similar? Secondly, why? Psychologists, sociolo-
gists, economists, management scholars, likewise as many
researchers from other disciplines accept been attempting to
®nd the answers to these ii questions. GLOBE (Global
Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) is
one such endeavor. Its intent is to explore the cultural values
and practices in a broad variety of countries, and to identify
their impact on organizational practices and leadership
attributes.
Also practical needs, at that place are important reasons to
examine the impact of civilization on leadership. There is a need
for leadership and organizational theories that transcend
cultures to understand what works and what does not work
in different cultural settings (Triandis, 1993). Furthermore, a
focus on cross-cultural bug can help researchers uncover
new relationships by forcing investigators to include a much
broader range of variables often not considered in contem-
porary leadership theories, such as the importance of reli-
gion, linguistic communication, ethnic background, history, or political
systems (Dorfman, 1996).
The cross-cultural literature has generally stressed a
strong connexion between culture and leadership styles.
In that location has been a plethora of state-speci®c and cross-
cultural comparative studies to examine the human relationship
between civilisation and management styles, including leader-
ship (House, Wright, & Aditya, 1997). The literature on this
topic points to a major departure of views regarding the
universality of leadership patterns. Many researchers have
argued for a direct affect of culture on leadership styles,
arguing that speci®c cultural traditions, values, ideologies,
and norms are ``leap to differentiate equally much or even more
than structural factors between societies'' (Lammers &
Hickson, 1979: 10). They believe that historical develop-
ments in¯uence the evolution of such distinctive phenomena
such as the degree of cooperation, morale, and delivery
to organizations (Child & Keiser, 1979; Maurice, 1979;
Journal of World Business 37 (2002) 3±10
*
Corresponding author. Tel: (215) 898-2278.
1090-9516/02/$ ± see front matter # 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Inc.
PII: S 1090-9516(01)00069-four
Redding et al., 1994; Smith & Peterson, 1988; Tayeb, 1988),
despite whatever economic or social similarities between nations
(Ralston et al., 1993; Shenkar & Ronen, 1987).
On the other side of the debate are those who believe that
at least some aspects of leadership may transcend cultural
boundaries and hence are universally accepted. In support of
their position, they have maintained that common techno-
logical imperatives (Woodward, 1958), common industrial
logic (Adler, Doktor, & Redding, 1986), and global institu-
tions and practices all serve to harmonize management
practices and structures (Child & Tayeb, 1983; Levitt,
1983; Yavas, 1995).
1. The Earth enquiry programme
GLOBE is a multi-phase, multi-method project in which
investigators spanning the globe are examining the inter-
relationships between societal culture, organizational cul-
ture, and organizational leadership. Close to 150 social
scientists and management scholars from 61 cultures repre-
senting all major regions of the world are engaged in this
long-term programmatic series of cross-cultural leadership
studies.
Earth was conceived and initially designed by the ®rst
author of this study equally the Primary Investigator. He was
later joined by several other Co-Principal Investigators.
Because cross-cultural research requires noesis of all
the cultures existence studied, we have developed a network of
approximately 150 Country Co-Investigators (CCIs) who are
social scientists or management scholars from around the
earth. The CCIs, together with the Principal Investigators
and with iii Research Associates, constitute the members
of the GLOBE community.
The CCIs are responsible for leadership of the projection in a
speci®c civilisation in which they take expertise. Their activities
include collecting quantitative and qualitative data, ensuring
the accuracy of questionnaire translations, writing country-
speci®c descriptions of their cultures in which they interpret
the results of the quantitative data analyses in their ain
cultural context, and contributing insights from their unique
cultural perspectives to the ongoing Earth research.
In almost cases, CCIs are natives of the cultures from which
they are collecting data, and in about cases, they reside in that
culture. Some of the CCIs are persons with extensive
experience in more than one culture. Virtually cultures have a
research team of betwixt two and ®ve CCIs working on the
project. The activities of the project as a whole are coordi-
nated past the GLOBE Coordinating Team (GCT). The GCT
is a multi-national squad of researchers who are likewise respon-
sible for designing quantitative measures and qualitative
methods, performing cross-cultural statistical analyses,
and analogous efforts to present results of the projection
to the scholarly community. To engagement, CCIs have made over
100 presentations at professional meetings and take written
over xxx published papers and book chapters.
2. Globe objectives
The meta-goal of Earth is to develop an empirically-
based theory to describe, understand, and predict the touch
of speci®c cultural variables on leadership and organiza-
tional processes and the effectiveness of these processes.
Speci®c objectives include answering the post-obit funda-
mental questions:
Are there leader behaviors, attributes, and organizational
practices that are universally accepted and constructive across
cultures?
Are there leader behaviors, attributes, and organizational
practices that are accepted and effective in simply some
cultures?
How practise attributes of societal and organizational cultures
affect the kinds of leader behaviors and organizational
practices that are accepted and effective?
What is the effect of violating cultural norms relevant to
leadership and organizational practices?
What is the relative continuing of each of the cultures
studied on each of the nine core dimensions of culture?
Can the universal and culture-specific aspects of leader
behaviors, attributes, and organizational practices be
explained in terms of an underlying theory that accounts
for systematic differences across cultures?
The planned GLOBE inquiry program consists of four
phases. Phase 1 was devoted to the evolution of research
instruments. The questionnaire scales developed accept sound
psychometric properties: high inside culture respondent
understanding, high between civilisation differences in aggregated
means of individual responses, and loftier inter-item consis-
tency within scales. The Generalizability Coef®cient (Inter-
class correlation ICC-KK), which jointly measures the
psychometric properties, exceed 0.85 for all of the scales
developed in Phase 1.
Stage 2 was devoted to assessment of nine dimensions of
societal and organizational cultures and tests of hypotheses
relevant to the relationships among these cultural dimen-
sions and cultural-level implicit theories of leadership.
Additional measures of a rather large number of variables
were too developed as role of Phase ii. These variables
business organization the ethnic census and religions of each coun-
endeavor, their social, political, and economic performance equally well
as measures of private physical and psychological well-
being. These measures are based on data published past the
Un, The International monetary fund, the World
Fivealues Survey, The Human being Development Study, and The
world Economical Forum's National Competitiveness rank-
ings.
We developed societal and organizational measures of
civilisation in the ®rst stage of the enquiry project. Items were
analyzed past conventional psychometric procedures (e.thousand.,
item analysis, factor analysis, generalizability analysis) to
establish 9 dimensions of societal culture and nine
isomorphic dimensions of organizational civilization. Finally,
4R. House et al. / Journal of Westwardorld Concern 37 (2002) three±10
during Phase ii unobtrusive measures were developed for
each of the nine core societal level dimensions of civilization.
These measures correlate between 0.5 and 0.7 with the
questionnaire-based measures of the cadre societal level
cultural dimensions. These data indicate that the question-
naire-based scales are validly measuring cultural character-
istics and are non mere individual perceptual descriptions of
cultures.
Phase 2 data collection has been completed. The tertiary
phase of the inquiry project volition investigate the impact and
effectiveness of speci®c leader behaviors and styles on
subordinates' attitudes and task operation and on leader
effectiveness. Phase 3 will also exist directed toward the
identi®cation of culture-speci®c aspects of leadership and
organizational practices, equally well as the longitudinal effects of
leadership and organizational practices on organizational
effectiveness. Finally, Stage 3 volition be devoted to identifying
relationships between organizational contingencies (size,
engineering, environment), organizational form and pro-
cesses, and organizational effectiveness.
Funding has been received from the U.Southward. National
Science Foundation and this phase is currently under way
in 25 countries. A projected fourth phase volition utilise ®eld
and laboratory experiments to con®rm, constitute causality,
and extend previous ®ndings.
Projection Globe employs both quantitative and qualitative
methods to provide richly descriptive, nevertheless scienti®cally
valid, accounts of cultural in¯uences on leadership and
organizational processes. Quantitative aspects include mea-
surement of societal culture, organizational culture, and
leadership attributes and behaviors. Concomitant with the
quantitative assay, qualitative civilisation-speci®c inquiry is
being conducted in the aforementioned cultures. Qualitative culture-
speci®c interpretations of local behaviors, norms, and prac-
tices are being adult through content assay of information
derived from interviews, focus groups, and published media.
2.1. Construct de®nitions of leadership and civilisation
In August 1994, the ®rst GLOBE research conference was
held at the University of Calgary in Canada. Fifty-four
researchers from 38 countries gathered to develop a collec-
tive agreement of the project and to initiate its imple-
mentation. In this coming together, considerable time was spent
generating a working de®nition of leadership that re¯ected
the various viewpoints held by Globe researchers. A
consensus with respect to a universal de®nition of organiza-
tional leadership emerged: ``the power of an individual to
in¯uence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward
the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which
they are members''. Simonton (1994: 411), speaking of
leadership in general, de®nes a leader as a ``group member
whose in¯uence on grouping attitudes, performance, or conclusion
making greatly exceeds that of the boilerplate fellow member of the
group''. The GLOBE project concerns the phenomenon of
organizational leadership, not leadership in general.
There is no agreed upon de®nition among social scientists
for the term culture. Generally speaking, culture is used past
social scientists to refer to a prepare of parameters of collectives
that differentiate the collectives from each other in mean-
ingful means. The focus is on the ``sharedness'' of cultural
indicators amidst members of the collective. The speci®c
criteria used to differentiate cultures ordinarily depend on the
disciplines and preferences of the investigator and the problems
under investigation. For the Globe inquiry programme, we
theoretically de®ne culture as shared motives, values,
beliefs, identities, and interpretations or meanings of sig-
ni®cant events that upshot from common experiences of
members of collectives and are transmitted across age
generations. It is operationalized by the use of measures
re¯ecting ii kinds of cultural manifestations: (a) the
commonality (agreement) amid members of collectives
with respect to the psychological attributes speci®ed
in a higher place; and (b) the commonality of observed and reported
practices of entities such every bit families, schools, piece of work organi-
zations, economical and legal systems, and political institu-
tions.
The common cultural attributes we have chosen to mea-
sure are indicators of shared modal values of collectives.
These values are expressed in response to questionnaire
items in the form of judgments of What Should Be . Emphasis
on values grows out of an anthropological tradition of culture
assessment (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961). Another
measure of culture, modal practices, is measured by indi-
cators assessing What Is ,orWhat Are, common behaviors,
institutional practices, proscriptions and prescriptions. This
approach to the assessment of civilisation grows out of a psy-
chological/behavioral tradition, in which information technology is assumed that
shared values are enacted in behaviors, policies, and prac-
tices. This assumption will be tested as part of Project
GLOBE.
The post-obit are the nine cultural dimensions studied in
GLOBE:
1. Doubt Abstention is de®ned equally the extent to which
members of an organisation or club strive to avoid
uncertainty by reliance on social norms, rituals, and
bureaucratic practices to convalesce the unpredictability of
futurity events.
2. Ability Distance is de®ned equally the degree to which
members of an organization or society expect and concord
that power should be unequally shared.
iii. Collectivism I : Societal Collectivism re¯ects the caste
to which organizational and societal institutional
practices encourage and advantage commonage distribution
of resources and collective activity.
iv. Collectivism II :In-Group Collectivism re¯ects the
degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty and
cohesiveness in their organizations or families.
v. Gender Egalitarianism is the extent to which an
arrangement or a social club minimizes gender part
differences and gender discrimination.
R. House et al. / Journal of World Business 37 (2002) iii±ten five
6. Assertiveness is the caste to which individuals in
organizations or societies are assertive, confrontational,
and ambitious in social relationships.
7. Future Orientation is the degree to which individuals in
organizations or societies appoint in future-oriented
behaviors such as planning, investing in the future, and
delaying grati®cation.
8. Operation Orientation refers to the extent to which an
organization or order encourages and rewards group
members for operation comeback and excellence.
This dimension includes the futurity oriented component
of the dimension called Confucian Dynamism by
Hofstede and Bond (1988).
9. Finally, Humane Orientation is the caste to which
individuals in organizations or societies encourage and
reward individuals for being fair, altruistic, friendly,
generous, caring, and kind to others. This dimension is
similar to the dimension labeled Kind Heartedness past
Hofstede and Bail (1988).
The ®rst six civilisation dimensions had their origins in the
dimensions of culture identi®ed by Hofstede (1980). The
®rst three scales are intended to re¯ect the same constructs every bit
Hofstede'due south dimensions labeled Uncertainty Avoidance,
Power Distance, and Individualism. The Collectivism I
dimension measures societal emphasis on collectivism, with
low scores re¯ecting individualistic emphasis and high
scores re¯ecting collectivistic accent by means of laws,
social programs or institutional practices. The Collectivism
II scale measures in-group (family and/or organization)
collectivismÐpride in and loyalty to family unit and/or organi-
zation and family and/or organizational cohesiveness. In lieu
of Hofstede's Masculinity dimension, we developed two
dimensions labeled Gender Egalitarianism and Assertive-
ness. Future Orientation is derived from Kluckhohn &
Strodtbeck's (1961) Past, Present, Future Orientation dimen-
sion, which focuses on the temporal mode of a social club.
Performance Orientation was derived from McClelland'south
piece of work on need for accomplishment. Humane Orientation has
its roots in Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's (1961) piece of work on the
Human Nature Is Good vs. Human Nature Is Bad dimension,
equally well as Putnam's (1993) piece of work on the Civic Club and
McClelland's (1985) conceptualization of the af®liative
motive. Sample items can be seen in Table 1.
Organizational and societal culture items were written
for the nine core World dimensions, at both the societal
and the organizational levels. We too wrote the items to
re¯ect two culture manifestations: institutional practices
reported ``As Is'' and values reported in terms of what
``Should Be''. The items were written every bit ``quartets'' having
isomorphic structures across the two levels of analysis
(societal and organizational) and across the two civilisation
manifestations (As Is and Should Be).
The bones structure of the items comprising quartets is
identical, but thdue east frame of reference is varied according to the
particular cultural manifestation and levels of assay beingness
assessed. Table ii contains an instance of a quartet of parallel
culture items, shattributable essentially theast same question in 4
Tabular array 1
Culture construct de®nitions and sample questionnaire items
Culture construct definitions Specific questionnaire detail
Power Distance: The degree to which members of a collective expect power
to exist distributed equally.
Followers are (should be) expected to obey their
leaders without question.
Dubiousness Avoidance: The extent to which a society, organization, or group relies
on social norms, rules, and procedures to alleviate unpredictability of futurity events.
Nigh people atomic number 82 (should lead) highly structured
lives with few unexpected results.
Humane Orientation: The degree to which a commonage encourages and rewards
individuals for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring and kind to others.
People are more often than not (should be generally) very
tolerant of mistakes.
Collectivism I : The caste to which organizational and societal institutional
practices encourage and reward collective distribution of resource
and collective action.
Leaders encourage (should encourage) group loyalty
even if individual goals suffer.
Collectivism II: The degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and
cohesiveness in their organizations or families.
Employees feel (should experience) great loyalty toward
this organization.
Assertiveness: The caste to which individuals are assertive, confrontational
and aggressive in their relationships with others.
People are (should exist) generally dominant in their
relationships with each other.
Gender Egalitarianism: The caste to which a collective minimizes
gender inequality.
Boys are encouraged(should be encouraged) morethan
girls to achieve a higher education (scored inversely).
Future Orientation: The extent to which individuals engage in future-oriented
behaviors such as delaying gratification, planning, and investing in the future.
More people live (should live) for the present rather
than for the future (scored inversely).
Functioning Orientation: The degree to which a commonage encourages and
rewards group members for performance comeback and excellence.
Students are encouraged (should exist encouraged)
to strive for continuously improved performance.
6R. House et al. / Periodical of World Business 37 (2002) 3±10
forms: Organization As Is; Arrangement Should Be; Society
As Is; and Society Should Exist. Items were derived from a
review of relevant literature and interviews and focus groups
held in several countries, every bit well equally from extant organiza-
tional and culture theory. Psychometric analyses indicated
justi®cation forgrouping the items into scalesouth relevant to nine
core Earth dimensions of societies and organizations.
A second major question addressed past GLOBE concerns
the extent to which speci®c leader attributes and behaviors
are universally endorsed every bit contributing to effective leader-
ship, and the extent to which attributes and behaviors are
linked to cultural characteristics. In generating leadership
items, our focus was on developing a comprehensive list of
leader attributes and behaviors rather than on developing a
priori leadership scales. The initial pool of leadership items
was based on leader behaviors and attributes described in
several extant leadership theories. The theories are described
in House and Aditya (1997). These leadership items con-
sisted of behavioral and attribute descriptors. Examples of
these items are presented in Tabular array 3. Items were rated on a
7-point Likert-type scale that ranged from a low of ``This
behavior or characteristic profoundly inhibits a person from
beingness an outstanding leader'' to a loftier of ``This beliefs
or characteristic contributes greatly to a person being an
outstanding leader''.
Weempirically identi®ed six global leaderbehavior dimen-
sions from a large puddle of leadership items. These dimensions
are culturally full generalizable. Respondents from all cultures
were able to completdue east the questionnaire items that comprise
these dimensions. Thursdayese dimensions of reported leadership
attributes and behaviors are dimensions of the culturally
endorsed theories of leadership of the state studied.
The psychometric backdrop of the scales united states of americaed to mensurate
these dimensionsexceed conventional stand upards. Twoof these
Table 2
Example of parallel items for the culture scales
Organization As Is
The pay and bonus system in this organization is designed to maximize:
1 234567
Private interests Collective interests
System Should Be
In this arrangement, the pay and bonus system should be designed to maximize:
one 234567
Individual interests Collective Interests
Club As Is
The economic system in this society is designed to maximize:
1 234567
Individual interests Collective Interests
Society Should Be
I believe that the economic organisation in this gild should be designed to maximize:
ane 234567
Individual interests Collective Interests
Table 3
Sample CLT questionnaire items and response alternatives
Definition of leadership Ability to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute to success of their organization.
Sample CLT items Sensitive : Aware of slight changes in moods of others.
Motivator: Mobilizes, activates followers.
Evasive: Refrains from making negative comments to maintain good relationships and save face.
Diplomatic: Skilled at interpersonal relations, tactful.
Cocky-interested: Pursues own all-time interests.
Response alternatives Impedes or facilitates unusually constructive leadership:
1. Substantially impedes
2. Moderately impedes
3. Slightly impedes
4. Neither impedes nor facilitate
v. Slight facilitates
half-dozen. Moderately facilitates
seven. Substantially facilitates
Notation: CLT, culturally endorsed implicit leaderships theory.
R. House et al. / Journal of World Business concern 37 (2002) three±x 7
dimensions are universally viewed as contributors to effective
leadership, ane isnearly universally endorsedas a correspondent,
and one is most universally perceived as an impediment
to outstanding leadership. The endorsement of the remaining
two dimensions varies by culture. The complete description
of the ®ndings is provided in Houseast et al. (1999).
3. The GLOBE conceptual model
The theoretical base of operations that guides the GLOBE research
program is an integration of implicit leadership theory (Lord
& Maher, 1991), value/belief theory of culture (Hofstede,
1980), implicit motivation theory (McClelland, 1985), and
structural contingency theory of organizational form and
effectiveness (Donaldson,1993; Hickson, Hinings, McMillan,
& Schwitter, 1974). The integrated theory is brie¯y
described hither. For a more than detailed description of the
integrated theory, see House et al. (1997). A diagram of
the integrated theory is presented in Fig. 1.
three.ane. The key theoretical proposition
The fundamental theoretical proposition of our model is that the
attributes and entities that distinguish a given culture from
other cultures are predictive of the practices of organizations
and leader attributes and behaviors that are almost oft
enacted, acceptable, and effective in that culture. The inte-
grated theory consists of the following propositions, which
are also shown in the system diagram in Fig. 1.
1. Societal cultural values and practices affect what
leaders do. Substantial empirical prove supports
this assertion (Business firm et al., 1997). Kickoff, founders of
organizationsÐthe organizations' original leadersÐ
are immersed in their own societal culture, and they
are about probable to enact the global leader behavior
patterns that are favored in that culture. Founders
in¯uence the beliefs of subordinate leaders and
subsequent leaders by utilize of selective direction
selection criteria, part modeling, and socialization.
Further, the dominant cultural norms endorsed past
societal cultures induce global leader beliefs
patterns and organizational practices that are differ-
entially expected and viewed equally legitimate amongst
cultures. Thus, the attributes and behaviors of leaders
are, in role, a re¯ection of the organizational
practices, which in turn are a re¯ection of societal
cultures (e.one thousand., Kopelman, Brief, & Guzzo, 1990).
2. Leadership affects organizational form, culture, and
practices. Founders of organizations establish the
initial culture of their organizations (eastward.g., Schein,
1992; Schneider, 1987; Schneider, Goldstein, &
Smith, 1995), and founders and subsequent leaders
go along to in¯uence the organizational civilisation (e.grand.,
Bass, 1985; Miller & Droge, 1986; Schein, 1992;
Yukl, 1994; Thompson & Luthans, 1990).
three. Societal cultural values and practices also affect
organizational culture and practices. Societal culture
has a direct in¯uence on organizational civilisation, as the
shared meaning that results from the dominant
cultural values, beliefs, assumptions, and implicit
motives endorsed past civilisation, results in common
implicit leadership theories and implicit organisation
theories held by members of the civilization (e.g., Lord &
Maher, 1991; House et al., 1997).
iv. Organizational culture and practices too affect what
leaders do. Over time, founders and subsequent
leaders in organizations reply to the organizational
culture and alter their behaviors and leader styles
Fig. 1. Theoretical model.
8R. Firm et al. / Journal of Westorld Business 37 (2002) 3±10
(e.g., Schein, 1992; Trice & Beyer, 1984; Lombardo,
1983).
5, 6. Societal culture and organizational form, cultureast and
practices both in¯uence the process by which people
come to share implicit theories of leadership. Over
time, CLTs are developed in each civilization in response
to both societal and organizational culture and
practices (e.yard., Lord & Maher, 1991). CLTs thus
differentiate cultures.
vii. Strategic organizational contingencies affect organi-
zational form, culture and practices and leader
behaviors. Organizational contingencies (size, tech-
nology, environment) impose requirements that orga-
nizations must meet in society to perform effectively,
compete, and survive. Organizational practices are
largely directed toward meeting the requirements
imposed on organizations by organizational contin-
gencies (Burns & Stalker, 1961; Donaldson, 1993;
Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967; Tushman, Newman, &
Nadler, 1988).
8. Strategic organizational contingencies affect leader
attributes and behavior. Leaders are selected and
conform their behaviors to meet the requirements of
organizational contingencies.
nine. Relationships between strategic organizational con-
tingencies and organizational class, culture and
practices volition be chastened by cultural forces.For
example, in low uncertainty avoidance cultures we
wait that forces toward formalization will be
weaker, and therefore the human relationship between such
forces and organizational formalization practices will
be lower. In lodue west power altitude cultures, we expect
that forces toward centralization of decision making
volition be weaker and therefore the relationship between
such forces and decentralization and delegation
practices will be lower. Due westdue east specify such moderating
furnishings in detail below when we discuss Phases 2 and
3 hypotheses.
10. Leader acceptance is a part of the interaction
between CLTs and leader attributes and behaviors.
Appropriately, leader attributes and behaviors that are
congruent with CLTs will exist more accepted than
leader attributes and behaviors that are not congruent
with CLTs.
11. Leader effectiveness is a function of the interaction
between leader attributes and behaviors and organi-
zational contingencies. Leaders who effectively ad-
clothes organizational contingencies will exist more than
constructive than leaders who do non.
12. Leader acceptance in¯uences leader effectiveness.
Leaders who are not accepted volition ®nd information technology more
dif®cult to in¯uence subordinates than those who are
accepted. Thus, leader acceptance facilitates leader
effectiveness.
thirteen. Leader effectiveness in¯uences leader credence.
Leaders who are effective will, in the long run, come
to exist accepted by all or most subordinates. Sub-
ordinates will either be dismissed or voluntarily leave
the organization led by leaders they do not accept.
In summary, the attributes and practices that distinguish
cultures from each other, likewise as strategic organizational
contingencies, are predictive of the leader attributes and
behaviors, and organizational practices, that are most fre-
quently perceived as adequate are most ofttimes enacted,
and are most effective. For a more detailed, ®ne-grained
elaboration of the relationships depicted in Fig. 1, run into Firm
et al. (1997).
The questionnaire information collected in Earth Phase 2
consist of (a) responses to approximately 17,000 question-
naires from heart managers of approximately 825 organi-
zations in 61 countries, relevant to societal and
organizational dimensions of culture, (b) unobtrusive mea-
sures of the societal dimensions and responses to iv
different executive questionnaires administered to separate
top-level executives in the organizations from which the
middle management data were collected. The executive
questionnaires elicited responses relevant to organizational
attributes, organizational contingencies, and performance.
These responses will exist used in Phase 3 to examination hypotheses
relevant to structural contingency theory of organizational
class and effectiveness.
This written report is a very brief introduction to GLOBE. Inter-
ested readers can ®nd a much more detailed description in
House et al. (1999). They can likewise access GLOBE'due south public
spider web site at http://mgmt3.ucalgary.ca/web/world.nsf/index.
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... As the Earth report shows, civilization affects leadership attributes, behaviours and practices (Firm et al, 2002). National civilisation volition typically push leaders to mirror the adequate attributes, behaviours and practices of the national civilization in social club for them to exist acceptable. ...
- Feena May
This thesis, which starts in a journey near lollipops (hence the championship), presents the story of adept leadership – a story of what makes leadership good. A chronological history of the development of leadership theory is presented equally the base of knowledge upon which this research sits. This thesis answers positively the research question of whether information technology was possible to observe the underlying fundamentals or constructs which allow good leadership to be enacted and be effective across contexts, cultures and organisational types. Through anterior and action research methods, carried out globally, the enactment of adept leadership is framed into five dimensions – that of presence, relating, sensemaking, action and service. It presents the Lollipop Model of Good Leadership which permits any leader to become a good leader.
... 3rd, we substitute CUL based on the four cultural dimensions of Hofstede et al. (2010) with CUL_2 based on the nine dimensions of Globe (House et al., 2004), which have been used in several studies of culture (Dikova and Rao Sahib, 2013;House et al., 2002;Javidan et al., 2006). Here, CUL_2 represents the cultural distance (Mahalanobis distance based on nine dimensions from GLOBE Downloaded information from CSMAR database. ...
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![Junjian Gu]()
Recent CEO scandals propose that CEOs' overseas experiences might chronicle to fiscal misconduct risks, but there is trivial evidence equally to whether and how CEOs' overseas experiences affect it. Given the increasing trend on hiring CEOs with overseas experiences in emerging markets, we make full in the gap in the literature by examining the fiscal misconduct risks of these particular CEOs based on Chinese firms. In sum, we notice that firms hiring CEOs with overseas experiences have relatively low financial misconduct risks. Further, we observe that firms hiring CEOs who worked or received education in host countries that show large differences from the home country, in terms of the cultural or economical surround, accept lower financial misconduct risks. Cross-sectional tests show that the furnishings are more pronounced in firms hiring younger CEOs. These results bespeak that CEOs' overseas experiences will mitigate a firms' financial misconduct risks by enhancing corporate governance efficiency.
... 50'efficacité du leadership mondial peut être facilitée lorsque les individus possèdent des compétences, des aptitudes, des traits de personnalité ou une façon de penser globale qui facilite la confrontation des problèmes multiculturels (Caligiuri, 2009). Par exemple, la connaissance des valeurs, des dimensions et des différences culturelles peut aider les individus à comprendre les normes et les comportements d'une nouvelle culture (House, Javidan, Dorfman, Hanges, 2002 ;Hofstede, 2001). La prise de conscience de ces valeurs et différences réduit le stress, l'anxiété, le choc culturel et adjutant à erstwhile des attentes réalistes, ce qui facilite l'efficacité au travail. ...
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![Daniel Lovin]()
Le multiculturalisme est une nouvelle ère de mondialisation et la diversité culturelle est inévitable, mais cette diversité peut ajouter de la valeur aux entreprises. À 50'avenir, il y aura une relation de plus en plus étroite entre la mondialisation, la diversité culturelle, le direction opérationnel et la gestion des relations avec les parties prenantes.Le sport est caractérisé par une concurrence féroce. Les organisations sportives sont de plus en plus contraintes de transposer les pratiques managériales présentes dans les entreprises et d'adopter les caractéristiques opérationnelles et structurelles des entreprises commerciales. La pression pour atteindre les objectifs économiques et la concurrence exercée par les organisations sportives a encouragé les dirigeants sportifs à considérer les outils et les concepts appliqués dans les affaires tels que la culture organisationnelle. Contrairement à d'autres domaines d'activité, le sport présente certaines particularités. La plupart du temps dans le sport, une seule organization peut atteindre son objectif de remporter la compétition, et les situations dans lesquelles plusieurs équipes atteignent leur objectif sont rares. Toutes les équipes, quel que soit le sport et quel que soit le niveau de ressources disponibles, essaient de gagner chaque match et chaque compétition. Aucune équipe qui se respecte north'entre sur le terrain avec 50'idée de perdre. Ainsi, au fil du temps, il y a eu des exemples d'organisations qui, avec des ressources minimales, ont réussi à dépasser dans les classements et les organisations de compétitions avec des ressources beaucoup plus précieuses.Tout d'abord, la question du management multiculturel prend de plus en plus d'importance à mesure que la société se mondialise de plus en plus. Ainsi, dans le contexte de la mondialisation, de plus en plus d'individus différents doivent travailler ensemble et former une équipe, et cet aspect est de plus en plus visible dans le sport.Deuxièmement, chaque société et chaque organisation ont besoin de règles pour fonctionner dans un environnement optimal. Ces réglementations doivent être proposées par un organe décisionnel légitime, qui donne confiance à ceux qui sont sous fifty'influence de ces réglementations. Dans une société de plus en plus mondialisée, il y a à la fois des réglementations internationales et nationales, et celles-ci peuvent influencer positivement ou négativement l'activité des organisations sportives multiculturelles. Par exemple, il y a des réglementations nationales qui exigent un nombre minimum de joueurs locaux ou interdisent 50'accès des joueurs qui n'ont pas joué pour leur équipe nationale. D'autre function, il y a des réglementations qui facilitent l'obtention plus rapide d'une citoyenneté ou des réglementations qui interdisent les confrontations sportives entre certains pays ayant connu des conflits historiques.
- Michael Eichler
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![Jon Billsberry]()
Although teaching in Business Schools takes a theory-driven perspective, there are multiple dissimilar interpretations of what this means. Nosotros make a contribution by examining how direction educators ascertain 'theory' and explore how differing definitions atomic number 82 to variations in the mode that pedagogy is conceptualised and designed. Nosotros prefer phenomenographic methods to reveal a 5-level bureaucracy of theory definitions ranging from unproblematic descriptive notions of 'theory as an idea' to more than explanatory definitions with causal and practice implications. This bureaucracy shapes the way direction educators design their teaching with those with the virtually sophisticated understanding of theory being the most practically focused in their teaching. Although all the interviewees view theory equally having an interventional purpose to shape or change managerial action, management educators are haphazard in the ways they teach students to apply theory. We conclude by discussing the implications of these findings for the essential–not-essentialist debate in management didactics and suggest avenues for future research.
Big Data has dramatically changed the competitive landscape of the global economy (Demirkan et al., 2015). Large Data capabilities enable marketers to differentiate customers by accessing and analysing their daily activities to influence the customers' choices in a way that increases profits. Marketers are thus motivated to pattern technologies that excerpt as much data as possible to tempt customers, and even lock them into a bike of commitment. This procedure of data extraction is the first stage of what has get known as surveillance capitalism, which occurs in the absence of dialogue or consent and contributes to structures of indifference towards the rights and liberties of customers (Zuboff, 2019b). In this paper, we highlight these intersecting relationships betwixt bookkeeping, accountability and marketing practices. We explore the office of the accounting-based marketing practices that persuade customers of a large retail provider in the Middle East to participate in and employ a loyalty program. We and so explain how detail forms of calculative practice, intertwined with socio-religious cultural norms, serve the goals of surveillance capitalism. We also reverberate on the traditional position of accountability systems vis-à-vis bookkeeping-based marketing practices to consider the upstanding concerns that underpin the use of 'Big Information' techniques (Dillard and Vinnari, 2019, Roslender and Nielsen, 2020).
- Traci Carrano Traci Carrano
- Darrell Norman Burrell
Purpose The emergence of COVID-xix has exacerbated and spurred the growth of mental health issues in ways that have challenged mental health workers tremendously. The circuitous nature of COVID-19 has made the need of mental health professionals extremely of import. Hospital ward overcrowding, social distancing requirements, sequestrations, limits to contiguous consultations take created barriers to mental wellness admission, especially those in demand of Certified Peer Recovery Specialists. Certified Peer Recovery Specialists play a disquisitional function in the treatment of mental illness through their back up and appointment of those recovering from substance abuse. Many in this role are hired because they have a strong skillset for help-oriented clinical work but are oftentimes challenged, particularly in times similar this to development and demonstrate leadership skills. This paper explores the nature and demand to develop leadership skills and leadership challenges for people in this field through interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) and a content analysis of the current and seminal literature. Pattern/methodology/approach This paper explores the nature and need to develop leadership skills and leadership challenges for people in mental health through IPA and a content analysis of the current and seminal literature. Findings The essential necessity to invest in the cultivation of peer recovery specialists and mental health professionals every bit organizational leaders. Originality/value Infirmary ward overcrowding, social distancing requirements, sequestrations, limits to confront- to- face consultations have created barriers to mental health access, especially those in demand of Certified Peer Recovery Specialists. Certified Peer Recovery Specialists play a critical function in the treatment of mental illness through their support and engagement of those recovering from substance abuse.
- Sandra Patricia Galarza Torres
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![Alvaro Carrillo]()
- Betty Elizabeth Cueva Ochoa
- Frank Patricio Landázuri Recalde
This paper analyzes the level of unity that followers perceive between their leaders' natural behaviors and their implicit theories. The result of the discrepancy in the perception of the quality link in the LMX/Exchange/Leader/Follower relationship is determined. The study included 1,250 individuals who work in 5 Ecuadorian savings and credit banks with assets of more than than 200 million dollars. The LMX-7 is administered to measure out the leader/follower relationship. Moreover, the CAMIN is used to measure leadership styles and the questionnaire that measures the attributes of the leader to evaluate the implicit conceptions [from Galarza (2019)]. The results reveal dimensions of leadership, such as the distance betwixt the existent/platonic leader and highlight the quality of the relationship with the superior. The leader who offers characteristics related to vision, innovation, charisma, high moral principles, and the ability to manage groups is more likely to accept his/her power and influence recognized.
- Huseyin Leblebici
- Lex Donaldson
ane. Anti-management paradigms in system theory ii. Structural contingency theory of organizational adaptation 3. A critique of population-environmental theory four. A critique of institutional theory v. A critique of resource dependence theory 6. A critique of organizational economics 7. Towards a unified theory of organizational construction 8. A way frontwards for organizational structural theory.
- Arthur 1000. Jago
- Robert G. Lord
- Karen J. Maher
List of Tables. Listing of Figures. Acknowledgements. Series Editor's Introduction. Role I: Leadership and Information Processing. Role II: Perceptual and Social Processes. Part Iii: Leadership and Organizational Performance. Function 4: Satbility, Change, and Information Processing. Bibliography. Nigh the Authors. Alphabetize.
- GeertBond Hofstede
This commodity examines the relationship of Confucian teachings with economic evolution in Asia. Futurologist Herman Kahn has labeled the cultures of the East Asian countries neo-Confucian, that is, rooted in the teachings of Confucius. Kahn saw himself equally a culturist: He held the belief that specific nations accept specific cultural traits that are rather sticky and difficult to change in any basic fashion, although they can oft be modified. Kahn's neo-Confucian hypothesis is that the countries of East asia have common cultural roots going far back into history, and that nether the world-market conditions of the by 30 years this cultural inheritance has constituted a competitive reward for successful business concern action. Cultural inheritances are not genetically transferred; they tin in principle be acquired past any human being who is at the correct place at the correct time. Individuals brainstorm to acquire the mental programming called culture from the solar day they are born, and the procedure continues throughout their life in a detail society. Cross-cultural developmental psychologists who have studied the behavior of children in different societies take shown that a child learns patterns of cultural behavior very early on in its life.
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222837925_Understanding_Cultures_and_Implicit_Leadership_Theories_Across_the_Globe_An_Introduction_to_Project_GLOBE
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